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GLOSSARIES OF TERMS RELATED TO READING:

From the : National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) -  1998 Reading Report Card The Reading Achievement Levels

There are three achievement levels for each grade assessed by NAEP (4, 8, and 12). These levels are Basic, Proficient, and Advanced. The following definitions of Basic, Proficient, and Advanced apply to all subjects and all grades assessed by NAEP:

The NAEP Reading Achievement Levels, Grade 4

The NAEP Reading Achievement Levels, Grade 8

The NAEP Reading Achievement Levels, Grade 12

Also view 1998 Achievement Level Results for the Nation.

From the: American Federation of Teachers

Alphabetic awareness - Knowledge of the letters of the alphabet coupled with the understanding that the alphabet represents the sounds of the spoken language.

Alphabetic understanding - The understanding that, in principle, the left-to-right spelling of printed words represents their phonemes from first to last.

Background knowledge - All children bring some level of background knowledge to beginning reading (e.g., how to hold a book, knowledge of words, knowledge of the world). Priming this background knowledge--relating new knowledge to that which is already known--helps children draw on their experiences as a means of understanding new information. When sufficient background knowledge does not exist, it will be necessary to adjust instruction accordingly.

Fluency - The ease with which students translate print to speech.

Phonemes - The elementary speech sounds represented by the letters of a perfect alphabet. In the English alphabet, which is not perfect, some phonemes are represented by combinations of letters (e.g., /th/, /sh/), and some letters represent more than one phoneme (e.g., c, g, a, e, I, o, u).

Phonemic awareness - The awareness that spoken words or syllables can be thought of as a sequence of phonemes. Phonemic awareness is a sub-category of phonological awareness.

Phonological awareness - The ability to attend to the phonological or sound structure of language as distinct from its meaning. Types of phonological awareness include word awareness, syllable awareness, rhyme awareness, and phonemic awareness.

Phonological decoding - Translating the letters or spelling patterns of a written word into speech patterns in order to identify the word and to gain access to its meaning.

Phonological encoding - Writing a letter or word based on its sounds.

Phonological recoding - Translating the spelling of written words into the speech sounds they represent.

Print awareness (orthographic awareness) - Awareness of how print works and how it looks. Print is made up of letters, the letters correspond to sounds and words, and text is read from left to right across the page.

This document was developed by The National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators as part of cooperative agreement #H180M10006 from the United States Department of Education, Office of Special Education and Rehabilitative Services, Office of Special Education Programs. The points of view expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the position or policy of the U.S. Department of Education. We encourage the reproduction and distribution of this publication.

From the: READING PATHFINDER
http://www.readingpath.org/glossary2.html

Acceleration -

The process of progressing through an educational program at a rate faster than that of the average student.

Alphabetic Principle -

A writing system design principle that associates units from the limited set of phonemes of oral language with units from the limited set of letters of the alphabet, yielding a highly productive alphabetic writing system. Knowledge of the alphabetic principle is awareness that written words are composed of letters that are intentionally and conventionally related to phonemic segments of the words of oral language.

Balanced Approach -

An approach to reading instruction that incorporates phonics skills learning and a whole language philosophy of instruction to provide balanced reading instruction.

Bibliotherapy -

Use of selected reading and related materials for therapeutic purposes in physical medicine, mental health, and education.

Bilingual Children -

Children who can communicate in more than one language; also used to denote children who are becoming bilingual by learning English as a second language.

Child Assessment -

1) Testing and evaluation used to decide if a child qualifies for special education services

2) The process of gathering information about what students know and can do in order to understand their strengths and weaknesses. Assessments can be both formal (standardized achievement tests) or informal (fluency rate, observation, checklists).

http://www.ertp.santacruz.k12.ca.us/

Decoding Skills -

Skills in translating symbols (e.g., alphabet letters) into recognizable syllables and words.

Developmental Milestones -

Natural stages of the human developmental process characterized by types of behavior, by biological properties, or by mental processes.

Developmentally Appropriate Practice or Programs/DAP -

Programs and practices that contribute to children's development.

(For a longer definition and discussion of DAP please see the NAEYC Position Paper at http://www.naeyc.org/resources/position_statements/psread0.htm.)

Dyslexia -

A learning disability characterized by expressive or receptive, oral or written language. Problems may emerge in reading, spelling, writing, speaking, or listening. Dyslexia is not a disease; it has no cure. Dyslexia describes a different kind of mind, often gifted and productive, that learns differently. Dyslexia is not the result of low intelligence.

Emergent Literacy/Emergent Reading and Writing -

The beginning stages of literacy that can be seen in a range of behaviors related to written language including those undertaken by very young children who depend on the cooperation of others and /or on creative play to deal with the material; reading and writing related activities and behaviors that change over time culminating in conventional literacy in middle childhood.

Fluency -

Achieving speed and accuracy in recognizing words and comprehending connected text, and coordinating the two.

Inclusive Programs -

School programs that include children with special needs and children with average abilities in a single instructional program or classroom.

Instructional-Level Text -

Any print material that is slightly above the reading level at which a student is fluent. Instructional level text contains some familiar material, but is more challenging than what the reader has already mastered. The use of instructional-level text permits the student to build upon what he or she already knows. Children's literature, big books , and children's original writing may serve as instructional-level text.

Integrated Curriculum -

A systematic organization of curriculum content into a meaningful system such that content areas and activities are interrelated.

Intentional Instruction for Reading and Writing -

Instruction in literacy and language arts that is a planned part of the daily classroom life. Not only does the teacher schedule time for this instruction, but he or she also makes detailed plans to meet the literacy needs of individual children as well as the whole group.

Intervention -

A supplementary program to address an identified or anticipated reading problem. Remedial interventions are aimed at school children that have been identified as achieving below expected levels. Preventative interventions are aimed at younger children who are thought to be at risk for developing reading problems.

Invented Spelling -

A child’s spelling system based on letter names, and /or sounds. It is also called inventive spelling, creative spelling, estimated spelling, and developmental spelling.

Learning Disability -

A disorder that affects people's ability to either interpret what they see and hear or to link information from different parts of the brain. These limitations can show up in many ways: as specific difficulties with spoken and written language, coordination, self-control, or attention. Such difficulties extend to schoolwork and can impede learning to read, write, or do math.

http://www.ldonline.org/abcs_info/articles-info.html

Literacy -

Being literate includes reading, writing, and the creative and analytical acts involved in producing and comprehending texts.

(For a longer definition and discussion of literacy see "Literacy and Illiteracy" at http://litserver.literacy.upenn.edu/explorer/literacyillit.html)

Orthographic Awareness -

Knowing that letters represent the spoken language; attending to predictable and frequent spelling patterns.

Partner Reading -

Students first read a given text silently, then read it aloud with a partner. Partners take turns reading the text aloud, alternating paragraphs. While one partner is reading, the listening partner follows along, correcting any mistakes he or she notices. Partner reading gives students oral reading practice and helps develop skill in reading fluently.

Phoneme -

A phoneme is the smallest functional unit of speech. The word "cat" contains three phonemes: the /k/, /a/, and /t/ sounds. Letters often represent more than one phoneme- the a in "cat" is a different sound than the a in "cake"- and sometimes a single letter will contain more than one phoneme. For example, the word "ox" has two letters but three phonemes: /o/, /k/, and /s/. Fluent readers learn to recognize these discrete sounds of spoken words quickly, accurately, and automatically. Phonemic awareness is the foundation on which all other reading skills are built.

http://ericec.org/princple.htm

Phonemic Awareness - A special kind of "phonological awareness" (defined below) involving the smallest units of oral language, phonemes.

Phonics Instruction -

1) Also known as the skills-based instruction method. In this method, phonics skills are taught explicitly. Children learn to master the sounds and letter blends that make up words through drills and corresponding basal readers before shifting their focus to children’s literature and comprehension.

http://www.edweek.org/ew/vol-18/27whole.h18

2) The phonics approach teaches word recognition through learning grapheme-phoneme (letter-sound)

associations. The student learns vowels, consonants, and blends, and the student also learns to sound out words by combining sounds and blending them into words. By associating speech sounds with letters the student learns to recognize new and unfamiliar words.

http://www.ldonline.org/ld_indepth/reading/reading_methods.html

Phonological Awareness -

Knowing that oral language has structure that is separate from meaning; attending to the sub-lexical structure (i.e. structure within words) of oral language (e.g. "beg" has one syllable and three phonemes, "egg" has one syllable and two phonemes).

Prereading Activities/Experiences -

1) Activities and experiences related to emergent literacy and reading readiness.

2) Preschool incidental learning that prepares children to read.

Promotion/Retention -

Promotion is advancing a child above the grade level his or her age level indicates is appropriate; retention is holding a child in a grade for a second year or delaying school entry for a year.

Readiness -

To be prepared for instruction.

Reading Problem -

Low achievement in reading or some key component of reading.

Risk Factor -

A characteristic of child or of the child’s home, family, or community, such that variation in that characteristic is associated with variation in reading achievement. (These correlations need not be causal, just informative about the early identification of children at risk.)

Special Needs -

This term is used to describe a child in need of special instruction/attention to achieve his or her maximum academic success.

Sustained Reading Practice -

When beginning readers have opportunities to read and re-read material until it becomes familiar. Sustained reading practice usually refers to reading aloud with a partner or in choral reading, but may also refer to reading and re-reading text individually.

Whole Language Instruction -

1) A philosophy about teaching, learning, and the role of language in the classroom. It stresses that children should use language in ways that relate to their own lives and cultures. Children are encouraged to decode words by their context. The common techniques of whole language teaching¾ daily journal and letter writing, a great deal of silent and oral reading of real literature, and student cooperation, to name a few¾ represent that philosophy in action.

http://www.edweek.org/context/topics/issuespage.cfm?id=14

2) Also known as the "literature-based" method of reading instruction, this method immerses children in a variety of literary activities, including reading books and writing stories. Comprehension takes priority over technical skills such as spelling. Students learn phonics or sounding out in the context of reading children’s literature.

http://www.edweek.org/ew/vol-18/27whole.h18

Word Decoding -

An aspect of reading that involves deriving a pronunciation for a printed sequence of letters based on knowledge of spelling-sound correspondences; in other words, the sounding out of a word.

Word Recognition -

In reading, identifying as known words those that have been decoded or processed as whole words and associating the known words with their meaning and use in language being read. In other words, word recognition is the ability to recognize a previously learned word and its meaning without needing to sound out the word first.

SOURCES Of Definitions

Burns, M.S., Griffin, P., and Snow, C.E. (1998.) Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting Children’s Reading Success. Washington DC: National Academy Press, 1999.
Glossary pp. 147-151

The Thesaurus of ERIC Descriptors

Learning Disabilities Online
      "ABCs of LD/ADD"
      "Reading Methods and Learning Disabilities"
(for definitions of "learning disability," "dyslexia," and "Phonics")

Education Week Online
      Manzo, Kathleen Kennedy.
      "Whole-Language Model Survives Despite Swing Back to Basics"
      March 17, 1999

      "Phonics and Whole Language"
      August 16, 1999
(for definitions of "whole language," "phonics")

CTAP Statewide Staff Development RTI (Reading Technology Institute)
Glossary
(for definition of "child assessment")

ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education
      "Principles for Learning to Read"
(for definition of "phoneme")